Network Security And The Internet - 1498 Words

The world is more connected now than ever since the birth of the Internet and with the new networking technology coming out. There is a large amount of personal, business, and government information on the internet and network infrastructures. Network security is becoming of great importance because of the attacker s ability to steal this information that can be easily acquired through different means of attacks. The internet itself along with network infrastructures has many security risks in it. Knowing what attack methods are out there allows users a chance to defend against them. Learning about the history of the Internet along with network attack and defense allows users and anyone operating within the digital realm a chance to not let history repeat itself. The entire field of network security is vast and in an evolutionary stage, and is evolving on a day to day basis. That is why security is emphasized in data networks, such as the internet, and other networks that link to the internet. When considering network security, it must be emphasized that the whole network is secure. Network security does not only concern the security in the computers, but also the security of the information leaving the computers, in route to a destination, and the next system it arrives at. Securing the network is just as important as securing the computers and encrypting the message. The internet architecture itself leads to vulnerabilities in the network. Understanding the securityShow MoreRelatedNetwork Security And The Internet1517 Words   |  7 Pagesever since the birth of the Internet and with the new networking technology coming out, will continue this way. There is a large amount of personal, business, and government information on the internet and network infrastructures. Network security is becoming of great importance because of the attacker s ability to steal this information that can be easily acquired through different means of attacks. The internet itself alo ng with network infrastructures has many security risks in it. Knowing whatRead MoreNetwork Security And The Internet2389 Words   |  10 PagesAs time goes by, network security has become substantially more important, whether it be for a business, the military, or even a private computer. With the introduction of the internet, security became a major concern and it’s only though a brief look recap on the history of security that we are allowed a better understanding of the emergence of the new technology that is released for the private and public sector. As mentioned earlier, the creation of the Internet allowed for a plethora of new threatsRead MoreQuestions On Internet Security Protocols1007 Words   |  5 PagesCapstone Essay 1st hour 4/10/2015 Destiny Case Internet Security Protocols Internet security protocols use many different methods to protect your computer from dangers across the internet. Because there are so many methods to do this with, there are also many protocols concerning internet security. Internet protocols as a group are often referred to as TCP or IP. TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol. Internet Protocol will deal only with packets but TransmissionRead MoreProject : Enhancing Network Security Utilizing Software Defined Networks1257 Words   |  6 PagesState Of Art Project: Enhancing Network security Utilizing Software Defined Networks (SDN) The idea Internet technology was implemented in the early 1970’s. Rapid growth of the Internet is constantly being observed from the past two decades. Internet actually elevated the world of technology to the next level. It became so common that most day-to-day activities were dependent on the Internet. Mass usage of the Internet made things simple and was considered as one of the most reliable sources. ItRead MoreFirewall Security Policy Pathways Industries1367 Words   |  6 PagesFirewall Security Policy Pathways Industries Security Policy Pathways Industries defines its Security Policies based on the risk assessment performed for the security of its assets, partners, and clients to maintain the integrity and confidentiality of data. Compliance to these security policies by Pathways Industries personnel is mandatory. Any breech of these policies could lead to disciplinary measures up to and including separation from the company. Pathways Industries will provide trainingRead MoreNetwork Security : A Security Platform For Users, Programs, And Computer Networks1667 Words   |  7 PagesNETWORK SECURITY VIPUL KUMAR KOTHIFODA ILLINOIS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY A20357836, vkothifo@hawk.iit.edu ABSTRACT In today’s world Network Security plays a vital role to protect the underlying network infrastructure from unauthorized access, malfunction, modification and improper disclosure. Network security helps to create a security platform for users, programs, and computers. Security became a major concern with the explosion of the public internet and e-commerce, private computers and computerRead MoreThe Basic Internet And Its Security1420 Words   |  6 PagesBasic Internet and Its Security What is the basic internet and how do you make it safe? Most people in the world have a computer but do not know what makes a computer a computer. Most people do not even know what device would qualify as a computer. The computer is an important part of the twenty-first century. The responsibility of computer users goes beyond internet access. The computer has basic internet and security that is needed to be followed. The internet guarantees a source of internet accessRead MoreSecurity And Beyond Information Technology1221 Words   |  5 PagesT. Security Beyond Information technology has become a very dominant and ever growing industry in today’s market. People have taken notice of it, and thus have invested quite heavily into it. Everyone is going online nowadays, more than ever before, but this is not just limited to people. Financial/Educational institutions, and various companies are all online in one form or another; being interconnected to the internet of everything. A prominent aspect of information technology is security, andRead MoreThe Core Layers Of Defense1237 Words   |  5 PagesInternet of Things is a new technology that delivers communication among billions of smart devices via the Internet such as a smart car, vending machine, smart house, health system and business system, et cetera. Nearly 50 billion devices and sensors will be connected to the Internet by 2020 and most of them will perform their duties without having security. In addition, the critical missions of a massive interconnected device are security and interoperability. Hackers will use more complex toolsRead MoreNetwork Product Development Company : Security Issue1280 Words   |  6 PagesIoT Integration in Network Product Development Company : Security issue –Critical Literature Review. Introduction: The Internet of Things (IoT) sometimes known as Internet of objects. Internet of Things later will change to Internet of Everything which includes education, communication, business, science, government, and humanity. The internet is one of the most important and powerful creations in human history (Evan, 2011). The high volumes of data generated by IoT and technologies for the similar

Poor Living and Working Conditions as the Reason for...

Poor Living and Working Conditions as the Reason for Bolsheviks Seizure of Power in 1917 Around eighty percent of Russia’s population were peasants who lived in communities. Living and working conditions for most peasants were dreadful, famine and starvation were common. People worked for long hours, their wages were low and rent was high. In factory towns people lived in overcrowded slums and there were very few sanitary facilities. Poor living and working conditions existed all the way, while other causes of the Bolshevik seizure of power came in later on. Peasants wanted change, but they were not getting it. The peasants became furious and more issues got worse for them. Everything added up†¦show more content†¦In 1911 Stolypin was assassinated and, in the years 1911-1914, protests and strikes began to increase. Nicholas II took Russia into the First World War. The First World War had created conditions in Russia that favoured the revolution. The war worsened Russian conditions, food and fuel shortages in the town led to protests and strikes, the ag ricultural system crumbled due to lack of workers, the railway system began to collapse, it was increasingly difficult to get food and fuel supplies to the city. Bad leadership in the front and lack of equipment and clothing led to mutinies in the army. The war speeded up the process of change-people had soon had enough with the Tsar and of what they thought was a pointless war. Most people wanted a short victorious war, but there was a shortage of rifles and other munitions equipment, military leadership was bad. In cities like Petrograd many strikes and demonstrations took place. By 1917, the army was no longer supporting the Tsar. He now had no effective means of suppressing the revolt, so this led to the Tsar’s abdication. However this is not the most important cause for the Bolsheviks’ seizure of power in 1917 because Lenin persuaded people to join his party and go against the government by using Marxist views. Lenin was theShow MoreRelatedBolsheviks Seizure of Power in 19173134 Words   |  13 PagesBolsheviks Seizure of Power in 1917 There are many factors that help explain how and why the Bolsheviks managed to seize power in 1917. It was a combination of long and short term causes that together, created a revolution. The political system itself was long overdue for reform, but with a weak Tsar, the economic and social conditions became worse and worse. In 23 years, Nicholas II dropped from the glorious ‘Little Father of Russia’ to prisoners of his own countryRead MoreReasons For The Bolshevik Revolution Of 19173737 Words   |  15 PagesWhy did Tsarism collapse and due to what reasons did the Bolsheviks triumph in 1917? The Russian Revolution of 1917 brought with it the fall of 300 years of Romanov rule and marked the beginning of the transition of Tsarism to Communism, from which Lenin established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, succeeded by Stalin. The Revolution is worthy of investigation as it is arguably the most significant event of the 20th century, considering that it helped shape many other subsequent events suchRead MoreWas the Provisional Government Doomed from the Beginning? a Russian Revolution5087 Words   |  21 Pages †¢ Annotated Bibliography P 15 - 16 Was the Provisional Government doomed from the beginning? After the February revolution on 1917 which saw the abdication of the Tsar, Russia was in turmoil. It had gone (in a matter of days) from being one of the most repressed countries in the world to being totally free with nobody in any real position of power or authority, and this was a massive change for the population of Russia. As a result of this confusion two bodies were set up to temporarilyRead MoreRussia Notes as/A2 1881-19147263 Words   |  30 Pagesissues such as road maintenance, prisons, poor relief and the army – but the nobles had more power than most. †¢ 1870 – urban areas given councils called Dumas. †¢ New industrialisation created a working class and intelligentsia. They could not vote. Russian Society in 1897 †¢ Ruling Classes (royal family, court, govt, nobility, army, clergy) - 12.5% †¢ Commercial Class (factory owners, merchants and bankers) - 1.5% †¢ Working Class - 4.0% †¢ Peasants Read MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagesdetermining beginnings and endings that accord with major shifts in political and socioeconomic circumstances and dynamics rather than standard but arbitrary chronological break points. In the decades that followed the Great War, the victorious European powers appeared to have restored, even expanded, their global political and economic preeminence only to see it eclipsed by the emergence of the Soviet and U.S. superpowers on their periphery and a second round of even more devastating global conflict.

Assessing the English Language Learner Free Essays

Assessing the English Language Learner (ELL) The Growth of ELL (ESL) The number of human beings who speak a language other than English continues to increase in the United States, Canada, and Australia, for example, as the number of immigrants grows. In 2006, 34. 70% of the population of Los Angeles, California, was foreign born; 25. We will write a custom essay sample on Assessing the English Language Learner or any similar topic only for you Order Now 50% of Miami, Florida; 39. 60% of Vancouver, British Columbia; 45. 70% of Toronto, Ontario; 28. 90% of Melbourne, Australia; and 31. 70% of Sydney, Australia (Statistics Canada, 2008). In the United States, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2004) reported that â€Å"The number and percentage of language minority youth and young adults— that is, individuals who speak a language other than English at home—increased steadily in the United States between 1979 and 1999† (p. 1). NCES added, Of those individuals ages 5–24 in 1979, 6 million spoke a language other than English at home. By 1999, that number had more than doubled, to 14 million. Accordingly, of all 5- to 24-year-olds in the United States, the percentage who were language minorities increased from 9 percent in 1979 to 17 percent in 1999. p. 1) The number of ESL students in U. S. public schools has almost tripled over the last decade (Goldenberg, 2006). In 2004 Crawford observed that one-fourth of the school-age students in the United States were from homes where a language other than English was spoken. The school-age population (K–12) will reach about 40% ESL in about 20 years (Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence, 2002). Between 1990 and 2000, the number of Spanish speakers increased from about 20 to 31 million (U. S. Census Bureau, 2001). The Census Bureau report also showed a significant increase in the number of speakers from other linguistic groups, particularly Chinese and Russian. Individuals at all ages enter school to learn the English skills they need to learn, gain employment and participate in society. Planning for their instruction is a significant issue for teachers at all levels and assessment becomes central. In this chapter we first define and differentiate terms such as ESL and ELL and describe the populations they represent. The use of assessment measures to place students into appropriate instructional groups is described and the distinction between interpersonal and academic language is reviewed. The use of assessment in the classroom and as a gate-keeping tool is addressed in addition to the appropriateness of the use of published measures to assess ESL students. The first issue addressed is terminology. Defining ELL Over the years students who speak a language other than English have been titled English as a Second Language (ESL) learners. However, English in some cases is not the second language (L2), but may be the third (L3), the 4th (L4), etc. , language, and, as a result, members of this population have different linguistic resources to draw on. The term â€Å"English Language Learner† (ELL) has been adopted by educators, primarily in the United States, to describe better the notion that English may not be the L2. However, it is not a particularly good term because students who speak English as a First Language (L1) are also English language learners (Gunderson, 2008). The term â€Å"Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages† (TESOL) is used outside of the United States. Students who learn English in environments where it is not the language of the community are referred to as English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students. The pedagogy related to EFL is different from ESL (ELL) because students are not immersed in English in the community and the major task of the teacher is to try to provide them English models (Gunderson, 2008, 2009). An added difficulty with the term â€Å"ESL† or â€Å"ELL† is that it does not adequately characterize the diversity of human beings it represents. Those who use the term â€Å"ELL† do so to describe those K–12 students who come from homes in which the language used for daily communications is not English and who must learn English to succeed in schools where the medium of instruction is English. The ELL (ESL) Population A serious problem with the ELL (ESL) conceptualization is that it does not adequately describe the underlying complexities of differences in age, motivation, literacy background, and first and second language achievement (Gunderson, 2008, 2009). Those classified as ELL or ESL vary in age from pre-school to senior adults. Many speak no English at all, while others vary in oral English proficiency. Many have never attended school, while others have earned high academic credentials in the language of instruction in their home countries. They are from diverse cultural backgrounds that vary in the way they perceive the importance of teaching and learning. Many are immigrants to an English-speaking country, while many ELL learners are born in an English-speaking country, but speak a different language at home (Gunderson, 2008, 2009). Indeed, in the Vancouver, Canada, school district 60% of the kindergarten students are ESL and 60% of this number are born in Canada (Gunderson, 2007, 2009). Many immigrant ESL students come from impoverished refugee backgrounds, others have high levels of education and socioeconomic status. Thus, ESLs or ELLs do not adequately represent the underlying complexity of the human beings in the category. Assessment Issues in ELL Instruction in mainstream classes, those typically enrolling students of different abilities but of the same relative age in the same classrooms, is based broadly on the notion that the acquisition of English is developmental and occurs over time as human beings grow into maturity. It is also thought that there is a relationship between language development and â€Å"grade level. † Grade 1 students differ from Grade 7 students in systematic ways. Their teachers design instruction that is appropriate for their grade levels. ESL (ELL) students represent a more complex problem because their English and their cultural and learning backgrounds vary in many different ways, even in individuals who are the same chronological age (Gunderson, 2009). In addition, Cummins (1979a, 1979b, 1981, 1983, 2000) and Cummins and Swain (1986) argued there are two basic kinds of English a learner has to learn; â€Å"basic interpersonal communicative skill† [BICS] and â€Å"cognitive academic language proficiency† [CALP], the language of instruction and academic texts. BICS appears to take about 2 to 3 years to develop and CALP about 5 to 7. â€Å"Hello, how are you? and â€Å"What is your name† represent BICS, while â€Å"Identify a current controversial world political issue and develop and defend your position† is an example of CALP. Teachers are faced with the task of determining what learning activities and materials are appropriate for instruction and measurement of learning, while instituti ons such as universities and some governments are interested in determining whether or not an individual’s English ability is advanced enough for them to either enter a post-secondary program or to have the skills necessary to be integrated into a society and, therefore, be eligible to immigrate. Thus, in some instances, assessment serves to guide learning by informing teachers of students’ needs while in others it serves as a gatekeeper by excluding those who do not meet its standards. Instructional Levels—Determining Appropriate Instructional Strategies Language teachers have for some time opted to assess their students to ascertain their â€Å"level† of English language proficiency. The difficulty with the levels approach is that they do not really exist (Gunderson, 2009). A popular levels approach was developed in 1983 by the American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). The assessment is a one-on-one assessment focusing primarily on oral language. Three levels of beginner, intermediate, and advanced are distinguished (see, ACTFL, 1983). A learner can be identified as a low beginner or a high intermediate, etc. The behaviors that determine inclusion in a particular group are usually described in an assessment matrix. The assessor asks a series of questions to elicit knowledge of vocabulary, syntax, and pragmatics. The following is an example of a matrix developed by Gunderson (2009) showing oral language â€Å"levels† and their attendant features. * 0-Level English 1. Cannot answer even yes/no questions 2. Is unable to identify and name any object 3. Understands no English 4. Often appears withdrawn and afraid * Beginner 1. Responds to simple questions with mostly yes/no or one-word responses 2. Speaks in 1–2 word phrases 3. Attempts no extended conversations 4. Seldom, if ever, initiates conversations * Intermediate 1. Responds easily to simple questions 2. Produces simple sentences 3. Has difficulty elaborating when asked 4. Uses syntax/vocabulary adequate for personal, simple situations 5. Occasionally initiates conversations * Advanced 1. Speaks with ease 2. Initiates conversations 3. May make phonological or grammatical errors, which can then become fossilized 4. Makes errors in more syntactically complex utterances 5. Freely and easily switches codes More elaborate approaches involve the assessment of English listening, speaking, reading and writing skills, e. g. , the Canadian Language Benchmarks (CCLB, 2007). The notion of levels is an important one for teachers because they are thought to predict a student’s probability of succeeding within a particular teaching and learning environment. A beginner is different from an intermediate in various ways, and the instruction they are involved in is also different. Teachers often refer to ESL students as Level 1 or Level 5, depending upon their performance on an assessment measure. The notion of levels varies widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In some cases there are 3, 4, 5, 8, or 10 levels, which are determined most often by locally developed informal assessment measures (Gunderson Murphy Odo, 2010). Good assessment is essential to the design of appropriate instructional programs. The difficulty for classroom teachers is that there are few, if any, appropriate measures for them to use. Classroom Assessment Black and William (1998) reviewed more than 250 studies and found that there was a relationship between good classroom assessment and student performance. Most classroom-based assessment has been developed by teachers (Frisby, 2001; Wiggins, 1998). Unfortunately, most teachers report they are unprepared to assess and teach ESL students (Fradd Lee, 2001). According to Pierce (2002), the majority of teachers employ assessments they remember they were involved in when they were in school: multiple-choice, cloze-like measures, matching, and true/false tests. This seems to have been the pattern for 50 years (Bertrand, 1994). Unfortunately, it seems, â€Å"†¦ many teachers are unprepared for the special needs and complexities of fairly and appropriately assessing ELLs† (Ehlers-Zavala, Daniel, Sun-Irminger, 2006, p. 24). Gunderson and Murphy Odo (2010) have recently reviewed the measures used by teachers in 12 local school districts to assess ESL students. The number of different measures and approaches in use was surprising. The Idea Proficiency Test (IPT) (see Ballard, Dalton, Tighe, 2001a, 2001b) was the measure most often used for primary level ESL students. Other assessments mentioned were the Brigance, (1983) the Bilingual Syntax Measure (Burt, Dulay, Hernandez, 1976), the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test (Woodcock, various dates), the Woodcock-Munoz (Woodcock-Munoz-Sandoval, 1993), the Pre-IPT, the Comprehensive English Language Test (CELT; Harris Palmer, 1986), informal reading inventories, the Waddington Diagnostic Reading Inventory (Waddington, 2000), the Alberta Diagnostic Reading Inventory, the SLEP, the Gap (McLeod McLeod, 1990), PM Benchmarks (a system for placing students in leveled books), the RAD (Reading Achievement District—a local assessment measure), the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT; Dunn Dunn, 1997), and a variety of locally developed listening, speaking, reading, and writing assessments. A serious difficulty is that most of these measures were not designed to provide ESL instructional levels so different heuristics in different districts were developed to translate them into levels. The designation â€Å"beginner,† for instance, varies significantly across districts as a result of the measures involved and the number of levels districts chose to identify. Two school districts reported the development and norming of tests for elementary and secondary students comprised of leveled passages taken from academic textbooks that were transformed into maze passages (see Guthrie, Seifert, Burnham, Caplan, 1974). Scores from these measures were used to compute ESL levels; four in one case and five in the other. Interestingly, different metrics were used to compute instructional levels. So, for instance, a CELT score was used to determine ESL levels based on local intuition and experience. Most often the locally developed assessments involved one-on-one interviews in which students respond to tasks that require recognition of colors, body parts, school items, and the ability to answer simple questions (see, for example, Gunderson, 2009). There are also standardized assessments used by personnel at post-secondary institutions to make decisions concerning admissions to their programs. Predicting Academic Success The best known standardized English assessment measure is the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) published by Educational Testing Service (ETS). The publisher notes: In fact, more institutions accept TOEFL test cores than any other test scores in the world — more than 7,000 colleges, universities and licensing agencies in more than 130 countries, to be exact. (ETS, 2009a) There are different forms of the TOEFL. The classic paper-and-pencil form had standardized scores with 500 being the mean and 50 being the standard deviation. There are newer v ersions including a computer- and an Internet-based version that have different scoring criteria (see score comparison tables (ETS, 2009b)). The online version is based on a â€Å"communicative competence† model that requires learners to view clips of science lessons, for example, take notes, and respond to questions. TOEFL scores are used by post-secondary institutions to screen students for admission to their programs. The criteria for admission to programs varies from institution to institution and among departments in institutions (see, for instance, University of British Columbia, 2009). There is evidence that TOEFL scores are not highly predictive of success in university (Al-Musawi Al-Ansari, 1999), however, although they continue to be used to do so. ETS also produces the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) and the Secondary Level English Proficiency (SLEP), both standardized assessment measures. The primary users of the SLEP are secondary teachers. The SLEP â€Å"measures the ability to understand spoken English,† and â€Å"the ability to understand written English† focusing on grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension (ETS, 2009c). The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) is a test of English language proficiency developed by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (2009). There are two versions: individuals who want to gain admission to a university in an English-speaking country take the academic version, while the other version is appropriate for trade schools and other purposes. Scores range from 1 to 9 with 1 being zero-level English, while 9 indicates native-like ability. Different universities require different IELTS scores to be eligible for admission. Both ETS and Cambridge have international centers around the world where students can take these tests. ELL assessment issues and standardized testing are procedures relevant to large-scale achievement testing in the United States. Large Scale or High-Stakes Testing According to Abedi, Hofstetter, and Lord (2004), â€Å"Historically, English language learners in the United States were excluded from participation in large-scale student assessment programs; there were concerns about the confounding influences of language proficiency and academic achievement† (p. 1). However, the United States has seen a focus on large-scale assessments due to the accountability requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (PL 107-110). No Child Left Behind permits assessing ELLs in their first language for up to 3 years, but few states do. In 2005 a group of school districts sued the state of California to force it to allow Spanish-speaking students to take state-mandated tests in Spanish. Plaintiffs in Coachella Valley Unified School District v. California argued that the state â€Å"violated its duty to provide valid and reliable academic testing† (King, 2007). On July 30, 2009, â€Å"The First District Court of Appeal in San Francisco rejected arguments by bilingual-education groups and nine school districts that English-only exams violate a federal law’s requirement that limited-English-speaking students ‘shall be assessed in a valid and reliable manner’† (Egelko, 2009). A lawyer for the school districts and advocacy groups stated, The court dodges the essential issue in the lawsuit, which is: What is the testing supposed to measure? If you don’t have to evaluate the testing, California gets a free pass on testing kids (who) don’t speak English, using tests that they have literally no evidence of their validity. (Egelko, 2009) The ruling was that â€Å"The law does not authorize a court to act as â€Å"the official second-guesser† of the reliability of a state’s testing methods. † The difficulty is that English measures are neither reliable nor valid when ESL students are involved. In some cases, accommodations are made for them. The procedures of providing ELL students accommodations during assessment sessions varies across jurisdictions, but includes such activities as lengthening the time allowed to take a test, allowing ELLs to be tested in separate rooms, allowing students to use bilingual dictionaries, the use of two versions of the test at the same time written in English and students’ first languages, providing oral translations for students, and composing responses in first languages. In 1998–1999, 39 states reported using test accommodations (Rivera, Stansfield, Scialdone, Sharkey, 2000). There is considerable controversy about providing accommodations, however. At the time of the writing of this chapter, accommodating students through the provision of L1 assessments has been judged not to be required. ELLs, Assessment, and Technology Advances in technology have made it possible for assessments to be administered as computer- or Internet-based measures. These developments have already taken place with measures such as the TOEFL (see above). An increasing use of technology to administer standardized and non-standardized assessments has raised interest in issues relating to mode-effects (e. g. , computer displays versus print form) and familiarity with computers, which have significant implications for ELLs. There is evidence that performance in paper-based and computer-based modes of assessment may vary due to ethnicity or gender (Gallagher, Bridgeman, Cahalan, 2002). In addition, familiarity with computers is known to influence performance in writing (Horkay, Bennett, Allen, Kaplan, Yan, 2006) and mathematics (Bennett et al. , 2008) high-stakes tests. These issues need to be taken into consideration with ELLs particularly immigrant and refugee students. A related problem has to do with access. Indeed, access to computer and/or to the Internet is widely varied and, therefore, creates systematic differences in access. These are all areas that need further research. The State of the Art of ELL Assessment Research As noted above, the category ESL or ELL is deceptive in that it represents millions of human beings who vary in age, first-language development, English achievement (both interpersonal and academic), educational backgrounds, immigration status, motivation, socioeconomic background, cultural views of teaching and learning, professional backgrounds, and social and academic aspirations. It is not, therefore, possible to review the breadth and depth of available research in this chapter. There are, however, some overall generalizations that can be made. Generally, the assessment practices and approaches designed for and used with native English speakers have been adopted and used with ELL students. This phenomenon is especially apparent in jurisdictions such as the United States where high-stakes assessments have become so important. There are serious validity and reliability concerns associated with this practice. It is not clear that the notion of accommodation, one borrowed from special education, helps in either case. Leung and Lewkowicz (2008) argue that this â€Å"common educational treatment irrespective of differences in language backgrounds† (p. 305) is emblematic of the view that both treatment and assessment should be inclusive. It does not account, among other features, for cultural differences that can cause difficulties for ESL students (Fox, 2003; Fox Cheng, 2007; Norton Stein, 1998). Overall, English proficiency is a significant variable in ELL assessment. In addition to the BICS/CALP distinction mentioned above, Bailey (2005) proposes that there is a language of tests that is a different â€Å"register† or â€Å"discourse domain. † The use of such language creates a problem of â€Å"face validity. † Is the test actually testing what it is designed to test or is it a test of the language of tests? English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students around the world are assessed using many of the same measurements that are used to assess ELL students. EFL students are enrolled in programs in non-English contexts such as Japan where the language of the community is not English. They do not have ready access to native models of English that ELL students usually do. This is very much like the way students learn Latin in secondary school. It appears that EFL assessments are generally used to measure oral language ability such as the ACTFL mentioned previously. Our review of the assessment procedures and methods in use in K–12 schools in 12 school districts raised several issues that related to ESL learners’ assessment that were not found in studies such as Bertrand (1994), so we present them here. First, we found that there was a need for a measure that would discriminate students with language pathologies and/or learning disabilities from those who only needed English instruction. District members also expressed the need for a reliable measure to sort out secondary students’ content knowledge and their linguistic knowledge. Lastly, they contended that assessment should be developed to isolate ESL students’ specific areas of weakness so that teachers could more effectively use them to guide instruction. Summary and Conclusions The use ELL or ESL is unfortunate because it masks the underlying complexity of the human beings included in the category. ELL is inaccurate as a term because native English-speaking adults continue to be English language learners well into old age. Perceptions and pedagogical prescriptions are the most troubling aspects of the use of these terms. In article after article the ESL or ELL is used as though they represent a homogenous group of human beings. Pedagogical recommendations are made on the notion that they are a single group with the same skills and abilities. Of course, this is far from the truth. Our experience is that teachers use the term to represent all students who speak English as an additional language. In addition, they appear to perceive ESL students as human beings who have trouble learning to read (English). And this too, is far from the truth for some students, but not for others. ESL (ELL) is a term that should either be qualified when used or discarded as a general term. The assessment of ELL/ESL/EFL learners is a significant foundational process for teachers to determine the appropriate teaching and learning programs for their students from kindergarten to the mature adult level. ELL assessment traditionally includes measures of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. There are three basic kinds of assessment instruments. The first is purely instructional in that it is designed to indicate the level at which students should be placed for instruction. The second type of measure is designed to provide an estimate of proficiency related to norm groups and involves scores such as percentiles and NCEs. The third is designed to provide predictive information concerning how well a student will succeed academically. Unfortunately, it appears that most measures are based on native English models. Another difficulty is that students’ English proficiency has a profound effect on their ability to succeed on a test. It is often difficult for a student to succeed on a test when the language of the test is difficult or unknown to them. Some have noted that the language of tests is also unique. Recently, assessment measures have been computerized and some have been put on the Internet. This raises serious questions of access, especially for students from countries where access is difficult or non-existent. For example, we have been told that the cost of taking an online test in a country like Zimbabwe is prohibitive. Educators from many jurisdictions have borrowed the concept of accommodation from special education to make the assessment procedures fair to ELLs who differ in various ways from native English speakers. There is disagreement concerning the validity of test results as a result of accommodations since they are not often included in the norming procedures of the instruments. We have heard some opine that accommodation is not itself fair, and that the results of standardized assessment provide information about how well students will do in an English-speaking instructional setting. It has been recommended that assessment measures be constructed that are written in different first languages. Some have argued that the number of first languages in schools would make this an expensive and impractical approach. In July 2009 the use of English-only assessment measures was upheld in a federal appeals court in California. It is clear from a review of existing assessment practices that school-based personnel use a wide variety of instruments and procedures. It is also clear that there is the belief that it is important to identify a student’s â€Å"English level† for instructional purposes, but there is little agreement on how many levels should be identified. The precise process for determining a level is somewhat fuzzy, but it involves the interpretation of a variety of scores from a variety of tests. The research base concerning ELL assessment is not substantial. It focuses on measures originally designed for native English speakers. They do not do well generally on such measures. Indeed, they do not do well in school and a great number drops out, particularly from lower socioeconomic groups. The state of the art of assessment and instruction involving ELLs is extremely dire. The issues of ELL assessment needs urgent attention since ELLs are the most rapidly growing group in our schools. References ? Abedi, J. , Hofstetter, C. G. , Lord, C. (2004). Assessment accommodations for English language learners: Implications for policy-based empirical research. Review of Educational Research, 74, 1-28. ? Al-Musawi, N. M. . Al-Ansari, S. H. (1999). Test of English as a foreign language and first certificate of English tests as predictors of academic success for undergraduate students at the University of Bahrain. System, 27(3), 389-399. American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). (1983). ACTFL proficiency guidelines. Hastings-on-Hudson, NY: ACTFL Materials Center. ? Bailey, A. L. (2005). Language analysis of standardized tests: Considerations in the assessment of English language learners. In Abedi, J. , Bailey, A. , Castellon-Wellington, M. , Leon, S. , Miro cha, J. (Eds. ), The validity of administering large-scale content assessments to English language learners: An investigation from three perspectives (pp. 79-100). Los Angeles: Center for Research on Evaluation/National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESSR). Ballard, W. , Dalton, E. , Tighe, P. (2001a). IPT I oral grades K-6 examiner’s manual. Brea, CA: Ballard Tighe. ? Ballard, W. , Dalton, E. , Tighe, P. (2001b). IPT I oral grades K-6 technical manual. Brea, CA: Ballard Tighe. ? Bennett, R. E. , Braswell, J. , Oranje, A. , Sandene, B. , Kaplan, B. , Yan, F. (2008). Does it matter if I take my mathematics test on computer? A second empirical study of mode effects in NAEP. The Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment, 6(9), 1-40. ? Bertrand, J. E. (1994). Student assessment and evaluation. In Harp, B. (Ed. ), Assessment and evaluation for student centered learning (pp. 7-45). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon. ? Black, O. , Willi am, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 141-148. ? Burt, M. K. , Dulay, H. C. , Hernandez, E. (1976). Bilingual syntax measure. New York: Harcourt Brace Javonovich. ? Brigance, A. H. (1983). Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills II (CIBS II). North Billerica, MA: Curriculum Associates. ? Cambridge University Press. (2009). IELTS catalogue. Retrieved July 14, 2010, from http://www. cambridgeesol. org/. ? Centre for Canadian language benchmarks (CCLB). (2007). Canadian language benchmarks. Retrieved August 10, 2009, from http://www. language. ca/display_page. asp? page_id=206. ? Center for Research on Education Diversity and Excellence. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students’ long-term academic achievement final report. Retrieved August 10, 2009, from http://www. crede. ucsc. edu/research/llaa/1. 1_final. html. ? Cummins, J. (1979a). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19, 175-205. ? Cummins, J. (1979b). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), 222-251. ? Cummins, J. (1981). Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada: A reassessment. Applied Linguistics, 2(2), 132-149. ? Cummins, J. (1983). Language proficiency and academic achievement. In Oller, J. W. (Ed. ), Issues in language testing research (pp. 108-129). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. ? Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy. Toronto, ON: Multilingual Matters. ? Cummins, J. , Swain, M. (1986). Linguistic interdependence: A Central principle of bilingual education. In Cummins, J. Swain, M. (Eds. ), Bilingualism in education (pp. 80-95). New York: Longman. ? Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English learners: Language diversity in the classroom (5th ed. ). Los Angeles: Bilingual Educational Services. ? Dunn, L. M. , Dunn, D. M. (1997). Peabody picture vocabulary test. San Antonio, TX: Pearson. ? Educational Testing Service (ETS). (2009a). TOEFL ® Internet-based Test (iBT). Retrieved August 10, 2009, from http://www. ets. org/portal/site/ets/menuitem. 1488512ecfd5b8849a77b13bc3921509/? vgnextoid=f138af5e44df4010VgnVCM10000022f95190RCRDvgnextchannel=b5f5197a484f4010VgnVCM10000022f95190RCRD. ? Educational Testing Service (ETS). (2009b). TOEFL ® Internet-based Test (iBT). Retrieved August 10, 2009, from http://www. ets. org/Media/Tests/TOEFL/pdf/TOEFL_iBT_Score_Comparison_Tabl How to cite Assessing the English Language Learner, Essays

Advertisement Message Strategy in Developing Audience

Question: Discuss about the Advertisement Message Strategy in Developing Audience. Answer: Introduction: Advertisement can be regarded as an audio as well as visual method of marketing communication that uses sponsored, professional messages for promoting or selling a particular products and services as well as ideas. Essentially, sponsors or else financiers of advertisements are businesses that intend to promote their own products or else services. Advertising is communicated through different mass media that includes both old and new media (Blackhurst et al. 2016). The old forms of mass media are newspapers, magazines, radio, outdoor advertisement along with television (Huang and Sarigll 2014). However, the advanced and new form of mass media include the direct mail, blogs, websites, text messages as well as search results among many others. Social media are also very important medium of reaching out tom customers these days. As per reports, Face book can be considered to be a very popular social media network where there are nearly 1100000000 unique visitors every month. This media i s also ranked third and this followed by you tube, twitter and LinkedIn (Bauer and Lasinger 2014). Chernev (2014) refers to the fact that the primary aim and intention of advertisement is to get the particular word out that businesses have exciting offers. As rightly indicated by Hollensen (2015), advertisement can be about anything such as upcoming program of entertainment, new line of product that business will sell, expansion of existing line of products or else services and recognition of adherence to different directives of journalism that detects who, When, why, where and what. However, it is also important to select the most effective media for the advertisement depending upon the target audience of the firm. Homburg et al. (2013) rightly indicates the fact that there are different models of advertisement that explains the way advertisements work. Advertisement communication models needs to incorporate four different steps where each steps has different objectives and delivers policies as well as tactical illustrations regarding the way each step can lead to the subsequent step (Huang and Sarigll 2014). However, from the perspective of planning process of a manager that is essentially top down, an advertisement communication comprises of decision making at four different levels such as Buyer, brand, advertisements, and media. At the stage of buyer, it is important to understand the action objectives of the target audience, communication objectives at the level of brand and processing objectives at the level of advertisements. Finally, the last stage involves exposure plans at the stage of media. Consumer Behaviour As rightly indicated by Bakshi and Gupta (2013), the primary objective of studying consumer behaviour is to comprehend and assess the influence of previous experience on purchasing behaviour of different products. Consumer behaviour is essentially an important part of marketing that helps in learning the manner different individuals, groups or else corporations select, purchase use and way of disposing diverse goods. This study also includes learning factors that include prior experience, tastes as well as preferences, pricing in addition to branding based on which consumers base their decisions of purchasing. Baker and Saren (2016) correctly analyses the influence of process of packaging for decision making procedure of consumers having low income. Findings of the study suggest that consumers having low income have greater preference towards premium packaging as well as brand experience. Nevertheless, it can be observed that consumers belonging to the low income group have higher br and experience from purchases of diverse premium products at the time when it is compared to their purchasing cheap brand products. Ansari and Riasi (2016) indicates the fact that there are essentially five different steps involved in the process of consumer decision making. Evaluation of five phases of consumer decision making procedure of buying are essentially: recognition of problem, search of information, assessment of options, decisions of purchase and finally the post purchase assessment. Researchers are of the view that each phase of decision making process is somewhat different from one another but leads to a common opinion regarding what each phase involve. Aguirre et al. (2015) states that recognition of need occurs owing to different factors as well as circumstances that includes professional, personal as well as lifestyle that in turn lead to development of idea of buying. Several prior researches conducted by academics as well as scholars on process of identification a nd analysis of diverse factors that affect purchasing behaviour of consumers. As rightly indicated by Adetunji et al. (2014), there are different factors that affect behaviour of consumers that again can be broadly classified as situational, social, cultural as well as personal factors. Influence of advertisement on consumer behaviour As rightly put forward by Adetunji et al. (2014), advertisements exert immense impact on the purchasing behaviour of consumers and helps the businesses in promoting their products and services. As such, advertisements delivers a news function to different consumers. Particularly, viewers of advertisements can acquire information and learn about the different new products as well as services that can be availed by them similarly in the way they learn about different events from news. Therefore, it can be inferred that advertisements help in generation of awareness among the consumers regarding the products as well as services provided by businesses. However, information function plays a neutral role and it delivers facts without taking into account approval or else disapproval from target customers. Particularly, in this phase, consumer behaviour orients around expressions of inquisitiveness. Aguirre et al. (2015) cultivated that there are different tactics of advertisements that gene rates psychological effects. This orients arrangement of images, words, brand or else logo that refers to ad visual. Again, it is also important to arrange the ad visual that indicates towards arrangement of fonts and colours. In addition to this, this process also includes use of particular methods of arranging ad context that includes framing, variations and medium. As correctly indicated by Bakshi and Gupta (2013), advertisements also help in the process of assessment of different features of products as well as services. It can be noted that consumers generally have a sensible response to various advertisement at the time consumers look at different facets of products or else services. However, this response concentrated on proper sequential listing of different operational aspects of different offerings. However, this can be considered as an intellectual reaction instead of emotional responses. Furthermore, advertisements also aids the process of analysis of advantages by the consumers at the time consumers become emotionally involved with advertisements as well as promotional activities of companies. In itself, it can be said in this context that repeated advertisements can affect behaviour of consumers and this repletion can serve as a reminder to different consumes (Ansari and Riasi 2016). Particularly, consumer behaviour crops from remind ers that includes sudden thoughts about the products at the time of shopping or else while arriving at decisions to purchase the good. As correctly indicated by Bakshi and Gupta (2013), advertisements also help in promotion of both loyalty or else alienation based on performance of the products compared to different advertised advantages. Bakshi and Gupta (2013) indicates the fact that it is important to understand the length of time for which the advertisement leaves an impact on consumers. In addition to this, it is also significant to understand the length of a broadcast, impression of print and online advertisements that can exert influence on customers in a bid to determine effectual reach as well as frequency. The media plan of a business needs to analyse how much is more than enough to reach to target audience and measure the exact point that represents the diminishing returns (Hollensen 2015). Again, the length for which advertisements leave an impact includes examination of lagged impact, resolving non-immediate impact of different media by means of decaying media. Aguirre et al. (2015) opines that the advertisement efficiency can be denoted as the magnitude and scale of a particular advertisement that produces a particular influence. Enumerating the influences and impact of advertisements is vital, given the specific amount allotted for investments for the purpose of advertisement. Baker and Saren (2016) opines that it is not feasible to acquire a worldwide measure of the advertisement efficiency, it is important to develop and implement mechanisms as well as measures for a partial substantiation of outcomes. Taking into account the level of difficulty of enumerating the overall efficiency, it is important to take into consideration the advertisement interacts with diverse other business variables as well as varied effects of advertisements. The efficacy of advertisements include advertisements interacts with other business variables such as behaviour, policies of marketing as well as financial decisions and many others and other environmental variables namely, competition and economic conjuncture among many others. The effectiveness of advertisements needs to take into consideration different effects of advertisements that are essentially varied and are not translatable into quantitative terms. The advertisements also need to create long term effects, not always (Huang and Sarigll 2014). As rightly mentioned by Bauer and Lasinger (2014), in academic literature as well as actual practice, analysis of efficacies of advertisements essentially has two basic models, namely, the dichotomous model and the three dimensional model. Ansari and Riasi (2016) opines that the dichotomous model is implemented particularly in product as well as brand advertisements, inclined towards isolating and evaluating separately the effect of sales as well as effect of communication. Raichelgauz et al. (2015) opines that the effect of sales points out towards the assessment of potential advertising to affect the overall volume of sales as well as the share of the market of the firm irrespective of the probable influence of different variables. In addition to this, the effectiveness of advertisement needs to be taken into consideration for the effects on sales during the short term period. However, the process of measurement of the performance of advertisement is founded on the marginal theory. Blackhurst et al. (2016) suggests that the advertisements is thus regarded as the independent variable for the study that again can be joined with further variables of marketing to have a particular result on the specific dependent variable that is essentially trades of the firm. However, the primary intention of the advertisement is to pursue the finest blend of the determining factor behind upsurge in sales. The consequence of the communication indicates towards the capability to transmit suitable messages to a sizeable share of targeted audience (Blackhurst et al. 2016). This effect can be assessed in literature with diverse approaches such as the following: sociological, semiotic, psychological as well as socio-psychological Adetunji et al. (2014) opines that the sociological assessment concentrates on different communities, regarded as a procedure regulated by different directives as well as social norms particularly on the social behaviour. As such, the role of advertisement strategies as well as consumption in the community change can be considered to be a very interesting topic. Again, the sociological aspects refers to examination of different advertisement influences viewpoints, attitudes as well as behaviours of different individuals and social segments. However, there are two different approaches of the sociological perspectives that present contradicting facets regarding the functions of advertisements in contemporary society (Chernev 2014). The sociological perspectives maintain a positive approach to advertisements. As such, it is considered that the role of advertising is to organize different economic as well as social associations, to harmonize diverse social behaviours and to make individu als stick to different common values (Bakshi and Gupta 2013). This too helps in the process of enhancement of art of living together by resolving different problems. However, the second approach is in comparison a critic as advertisement leads to generation of mass consumption. However, in a bid to present appropriate messages, the management of firms introduces innovative, poorly differentiated as well as emblematic values. As correctly indicated by Park et al. (2013), the semiotic analysis stresses on the use of symbols and this particular approach is useful expressly in the context of creation of suitable advertisements for a business concern. These are essentially recognized as things that conveys specific meanings, for example, certain words, gestures, forms of dance as well as specific images. Madni et al. (2016) correctly mentions that the semiotic studies in detail different features of encoding and more particularly the usage of the codes. However, the primary aim and intention of the investigation is itself the message that contains diverse symbols as well as signs that can be construed as per predetermined intention, without reference to particular consumer as well as the influence of the behaviour of the consumer. As suggested by Kotler et al. (2015), process of communication in general as well as the advertisements in particular are essentially treated by different psychologists. Sheth and Sisodia (2015) mentions that the psychologists examine the motivation of different recipients of the messages of the advertisements that occupy a crucial position in the entire process of analysis. Therefore, the purpose of advertisement creator is to recognize the reasons of consumer behaviour in a bid to detect effective messages of advertisement or to remove the barriers of communication. Hollensen (2015) suggests that the psychological approach along with other types of research as well as investigation have surfaced that leads to contribution to neuroscience. Different evidence acquired by means of scientific experimentation become an essential support for substantiation of diverse assumptions. Homburg et al. (2013) refers to the fact that the psychological approach has the advantage to enumerate the e fficiency of advertisement with reference to recipient of particular message, especially to the characteristics of the consumers. Conversely, this particular approach does not offer exhaustive replies, and does not research the accurate causes. This again provides the particular messages of advertisements to gain publicity. The messages are decoded, stored and in due course leads to purchases. Thus, it is important to taken into consideration the entire process of communication along with different external factors, particularly, the factors associated to the environment that might play a vital role in determination of the behaviour of the receiver. This process of assessment of the messages can be considered to be vital due to the influence of specific messages on the perceptions of receivers. Madni et al. (2016) opines that the motivations of customers essentially drive the behaviours of consumers, in a bid to recognize with effective advertisement. Park et al. (2013) cultivates the fact that the socio-psychological method essentially takes into consideration the message as well as recipients of the communication. However, this tactic intends to examine the efficiencies of advertisement strategies from the perspective of persuasiveness, noting influence on overall course of generation of responsiveness, memory, outlook as well as behaviour. The research methodology takes into attention the entire environment of the process of communication and the real interactions. Bakshi and Gupta (2013) suggests that the process of experimentation can be widely utilized that can help in testing of formed hypothesis and establishing the links between diverse variables by means of pre-test. This in turn also helps in gaining an advantage in terms of legitimacy of the entire process of research. The procedure also concentrates solely as well as exhaustively on direct influence of diverse variables when considered discretely is hard to tackle in actuality. Nevertheless, this method assesses definite involvement of different variables in the process of elucidating the progression of different variables that are dependent (Adetunji et al. 2014). The major limitations to the dichotomous model can be related to the partial appraisal and inability to deliver consistent breakdowns of the effects attained by advertising as well as other policies of the corporation. Again, the three-dimensional models such as AIDA model as well as model Dagmar are preferred (Blackhurst et al. 2016). Raichelgauz et al. (2015) suggests that the three-dimensional models are utilized both in planning advertising campaigns as well as evaluating the effectiveness. The models also recommend a hierarchy of effects of communication, cognitive as well as behavioural effects. Ansari and Riasi (2016) opines that evaluation of different cognitive dimensions can be related to the understanding of messages and storing of the particular messages in the memory. This memory storage includes spontaneous recall, stimulated recall, facilitated by presentation of particular substantiation, associated memory (Aguirre et al. 2015). The respondents also need to illustrate one particular elements of the process of communication, recognition of the advertising, allocation of brand and the memory of not any specific advertisement but also the brand that is advertised. Profile of Vodafone and its strategy of marketing As rightly put forward by Bauer and Lasinger (2014), Vodafone can be regarded as one of the foremost transnational brands and this corporation also hold the position of 11th largest telecommunication corporation in the entire globe. In addition to this, the corporation also stands in the second position in particularly Europe. Similarly, Vodafone named as Vodafone Essar in India is also considered as one of the principal service providers of telecommunication in India. Other mobile phone providers in Australia include Optus, Telstra, Virgin Mobile and many others. Optus essentially focuses in a wide range of services related to communications counting mobile, regional, national as well as long distant telephony, network services, internet in addition to different satellite services along with television for subscription. Virgin Mobile Australia is necessarily a telecommunication corporation founded in Sydney. This mobile phone provider also uses the Optus Network in a bid to reach ap proximately 98.5% people in Oz (Ansari and Riasi 2016). As rightly put forward by Ansari and Riasi (2016), Vodafone is widely known for the exclusive advertisement campaign designed by the corporation, namely, pug, campaign of happy to help and advertisement campaign of Zoozoo. The management of Vodafone takes up a very challenging task of constant development of the image of the business entities. The management of Vodafone presented brilliant persona for the company that was very much appropriate for its Zoozoo advertisement campaign. As such, Zoozoos are particularly denoted as the white creatures that possesses ballooned forms along with features of egg heads. This are essentially used to endorse diverse value added services (VAS) of the corporation. Bakshi and Gupta (2013) mentions that each and every advertisement presented by the corporation has a story that are particularly enacted by the zoozoo characters. The new ad featuring the Zoozoo although look like the animated pones are actual human beings performing in zoozoo costumes. The advertisement campaigns generally have different implications from the economic standpoints. Madni et al. (2016) suggested that the company Vodafone functions fundamentally in an oligopoly arcade that is categorised by presence of few sellers as well as mutual interdependence. This is essentially a market where all the sellers intends outdo the other players in the market by means of price war that refers to the curtailing of prices as well as non-price wars (Hollensen 2015). The advertisement strategies of a corporation can be considered to be a non-price war where all the players operating in a particular market intends to gain competitive advantage through implementation of innovative as well as exclusive advertisement strategies for generating greater mass appeal. The advertisement campaigns of the company Vodafone are also directed towards outdoing the strategies of the rival players in the market. The management of Vodafone has too attempted to symbolise an appearance of common people belonging to urban areas who can be regarded as the main driving potency behind the augmented use of service of telecom as well as services of VAS offered particularly in the telecommunication business (Baker and Saren 2016). In addition to this, the management of the company Vodafone have tried to present as well as showcase the ways the offers of the company Vodafone can prove to be useful for the urban common people through the Zoozoo characters of the advertisement of the firm. Chernev (2014) suggested that the management of the company Vodafone intended to attract and draw the attention of the target customers of the company not by normal advertisements but by means of catchy as well as funny advertisements. The advertisements of the company also tries to promote different Value added Services offered by the corporation. Therefore, the advertisements of Vodafone also tries to create awareness, growth in sales, and segmentation of market and identification of brand. References Adetunji, R.R., Nordin, S.M. and Noor, S.M., 2014. The Effectiveness of Integrated Advertisement Message Strategy in Developing Audience-Based Brand Equity.Global Business and Management Research,6(4), p.308. Aguirre, E., Mahr, D., Grewal, D., de Ruyter, K. and Wetzels, M., 2015. Unraveling the personalization paradox: the effect of information collection and trust-building strategies on online advertisement effectiveness.Journal of Retailing,91(1), pp.34-49. Ansari, A. and Riasi, A., 2016. An Investigation of Factors Affecting Brand Advertising Success and Effectiveness.International Business Research,9(4), p.20. Baker, M.J. and Saren, M. eds., 2016.Marketing theory: a student text. Sage. Bakshi, G. and Gupta, S.K., 2013. Online advertising and its impact on consumer buying behavior.International Journal of Research in Finance and Marketing,3(1), pp.21-30. Bauer, C. and Lasinger, P., 2014. Adaptation strategies to increase advertisement effectiveness in digital media.Management Review Quarterly,64(2), pp.101-124. Blackhurst, J.P., Abbott, R.L., Hamilton, A. and Shahda, F.A., 2016.Advertisement Impressions And Customer Transaction Correlation For Advertisement Validation. U.S. Patent 20,160,042,387. Chernev, A., 2014.Strategic marketing management. Cerebellum Press. Hollensen, S., 2015.Marketing management: A relationship approach. Pearson Education. Homburg, C., Kuester, S. and Krohmer, H., 2013.Marketing management(Vol. 2). Wiesbaden: Gabler. Huang, R. and Sarigll, E., 2014. How brand awareness relates to market outcome, brand equity, and the marketing mix. InFashion Branding and Consumer Behaviors(pp. 113-132). Springer New York Kotler, P., Keller, K.L., Manceau, D. and Hmonnet-Goujot, A., 2015.Marketing management(Vol. 14). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Madni, A.R., Hamid, N.A. and Mohd, S., 2016. Influence of Controversial Advertisement on Consumer Behavior.Journal of Commerce (22206043),8. Park, J., Kang, D., Kang, H., Kwon, H., Kim, J., Park, B. and Jo, H., 2013. Effectiveness on Public Advertisement Interaction of Advertiser Awareness, Advertisement Appeal and Customer Involvement and Need for Cognition.Journal of the Korea society of IT services,12(4), pp.235-253. Raichelgauz, I., Odinaev, K. and Zeevi, Y.Y., Cortica, Ltd., 2015.System and method for generating an advertisement effectiveness performance score. U.S. Patent Application 14/621,661. Sheth, J.N. and Sisodia, R.S., 2015.Does marketing need reform?: Fresh perspectives on the future. Routledge.

Lifestyles -- Compare And Cntrast Essays - Lifestyle, Personal Life

Lifestyles -- Compare And Cntrast Outline Thesis Statement: There is always a tendency to compare our person lifestyle to that of many years ago. Introduction: Education ? In past, students face less pressure from teachers and parents. ? Today, students are much pressurized to perform I) Community Living in village ? In past, community living in village was more attractive and successful and standard of living was low. ? Today, people are suspicious of their neighbors and it is common to see closed doors in most high-rise flats. II) Advance Technology ? In past, there were no computers. ? Today, we have laptops or notebooks; we can carry it everywhere III) Telecommunications ? In past, we have to travel a lot from one place to another to convey a simple message ? Today, world is very small we can make calls wherever we like. Conclusion: Thus, lifestyle and society of today and that in the past have their own positive and negative issues. There is always a tendency to compare our person lifestyle to that of many years ago. To a certain extent, things were much better in earlier times. Firstly, in the aspect of education, students faced less pressure from teachers and parents. Expectations of these people were often realistic and achievable and this helped to be relaxed and cool as individuals. Today, students are much pressurized to perform well in school to meet to the expectations of their teacher and parents. This is reflected by the numerous tuition sessions and additional lessons they have to attend the more often than not, the academic aspect overrides the importance of social and emotional development. Secondly, community living in village was more attractive and successful in the past; people were drawn together naturally despite their religion or race. They were spontaneous in helping one another. Today, people are suspicious of their neighbors and it is common to see closed doors in most high-rise flats. There is no communications among neighbors in some cases. Thirdly, the purchasing power of a consumer is higher. In the past, standard of living was very low, where as, consumer goods were cheap. Today, a consumer needs to possess more money to purchase basic necessities of life. Of course, the present time has its appeal too. Firstly, with the impressive advance in technology, our life is made more comfortable. The computer system enables one to edit a complete work repeatedly and serves various functions as well. Information can be saved in files and easily retrieved if desired. Even the computers of today are more portable and compact in their designs. A laptop or notebook can be carried around easily. Secondly, the telecommunications services are so advanced that there is greater accessibility to make international calls whenever we like. There is no need to travel overseas to make personal visits when important messages need to be conveyed. Another important positive trail of today's society is the improvement in public transport. With the invention of MRT's, road reduction, noise and air pollution are reduced. With the present increasing focus on environment issues, this is an essential step taken by us. Thus, the lifestyle and society of today and that in the past have their own positive and negative issues. It is important for one to remain objective to see and appreciate the strengths of both times.

Jawaharlal Nehru Essays

Jawaharlal Nehru Essays Jawaharlal Nehru Essay Jawaharlal Nehru Essay Introduction- Jawaharlal Nehru was born on the 14th of November in 1889 in Allahabad, in the time when British were conquering India. He always had a rose in his pocket to show that kids were/are like buds/flowering plants in the garden. He was very fond of children, so in India they celebrate his birthday, as childrens day. He was one of the freedom fighters of India. That shows that he is a very close friend of Mohamdas Karamchand Gandhi. He also like the bird white-dove which he thought represented peace. He was also an exceptional child and was greatly loves by everyone in India even as a kid. His father was an eminent lawyer- Motilal Nehru, and his mom was Swaroop-rani. He was not sent to school in his childhood (got education from home), but later, He went to Cambridge in England, for higher studies. He returned to India in 1912, and then he became a lawyer. He was doing his practice in Allahabad High Court. Then he quit his practice and joined the freedom movement. This is where he met Mahatma Gandhi, and got closer to him. During the fight for freedom, he was sent to jail by the British people a lot of times. India got freedom in 1947 and Jawaharlal Nehru was the first prime-minister. He was also one of the most successful prime-ministers of India. He did a lot of good things to India like- he started the industrialization, he also developed irrigation in India. He made India get better, by leaps and bounds during his presidency. He has also written a lot of books. He worked severely hard for serving his country. He was a great lover of nature and beauty. Since he loved children, all the kids called him Chacha- which means uncle. He died on 27th of May in 1964. Collage Pictures- 1. Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru I chose this picture to show how Nehru was close Mahtma Gandhi. They did many things together, to get freedom for India from the British. Jawaharlal Nehru found something special in Gandhi that any other political leader had. Even his father, did not have such political skills. Even Nehru’s father, Motilal Nehru liked Mahtma Gandhi; he found inner confidence in him, which none of the political leaders had, that time. 2. Jawaharlal Nehru with Rose on his clothes I chose this picture to show how kind and caring person he was. As I stated in the beginning, he was very fond of children, and he thought that children were like buds in the garden. To represent this thought of his, he thought of the rose as kids/children and he wore it on this clothes. 3. Jawaharlal Nehru’s 1 rupee coin and stamp The coin and the stamp, both were released in the same day which he became the president. This was released to show all the great things he did. The coin and the stamp represent him. 4. A portrait that represents Jawaharlal Nehru I chose this picture because it shows how much he liked peace and white dove. In this portrait, he has white doves circling him, which shows that he liked peace, and he prefers being surrounded in peace rather than a wild/violent atmosphere. He has a India flag on his shoulder, and his clothes has INDIA on it, this shows how much he loves the country. The person who painted this, painted a moon behind his head to show, that he did a lot of bright things to the country. 5. In this picture, he is with the Indian flag. The Indian flag represents- RED- courage WHITE- peace and honesty GREEN- hope, joy and love This shows that he has all of this in him. That is why I chose this portrait Jawaharlal Nehru with the flag of India.

Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words - 2

Business Law - Essay Example This paper shall consider different authorities on the subject matter in order to arrive at a scholarly appraisal of the subject matter. According to section 181 of the Corporations Act, â€Å"a director or other officer of a corporation must exercise their power and discharge their duties in good faith in the best interest of the corporation and for a proper use†. Violations of this provision make a director civilly and criminally liable. For directors who act dishonestly and recklessly, criminal liability may be forthcoming (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1997). The directors’ duty is to avoid conflicts of duty and interest and therefore, he must not allow conflicts of interest to compromise his position in the company. Sections 191-195 of the Corporations Act set forth obligations for directors to not allow conflicts of interest to arise from his actions. Based on these provisions, directors are therefore called on to notify the board of directors when there are instances of personal interest which have a bearing on the company activities and affairs (Panoramic Resources, 200 8). Section 195 of the Corporations Law specifies that a director of a public company cannot be present during a voting or board meeting where the members are deliberating an issue where he is an essential person of interest. He may however be present if the other directors pass a resolution allowing him to be present and to vote; and if the ASIC orders a specific order on the issue (Corporations Law, 2001). The responsibilities in the section cover board meetings, and meetings of committees of the board. This is to be applied even if the committee would not have any bearing on the affairs of the company. Committees under advisory capacities are therefore part of the prohibition (Tomasic, et.al., 2002). In evaluating the terms under which

The Plight of Workers Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Plight of Workers - Assignment Example In the early years of twentieth century there was a massive inflow of immigrants in the United States of America. The poor immigrants were beckoned into America by the alleged abundant opportunities. Upon arrival they provided a reservoir of cheap labor to factories and other businesses. The dilapidated tenements were the abode of choice for many of them. The houses had no clean water or sewerage system. Life in these slums was unbearable.1 Chicago was strategically located with a cattle rearing hinterland. This gave rise to a mammoth meat packing sector which needed thousand of unskilled labor. It was a city of contrast with magnificent buildings owned by the factory owners and the slums housing the laborers. The working condition was akin to slavery and the meat packing process was unhealthy. Apart from the misery in the meat packing factories, the filth and toxics from the factories found their way into the local rivers. The entire macabre situation is captured through the life of an immigrant Lithuanian family. It narrates their struggles to adapt to a new life and a series of misfortune that befalls them in the process. Upon arrival the future looks bright with prospects of getting jobs in the slaughter house.2 The cheer magnitude of the deplorable conditions is not only evidenced by the dilapidated buildings housing the workers but the land upon which the houses are built. It is a waste land reclaimed by filling soil mining pits with garbage resulting to a perpetual stench. Jurgis however, views the idea as a brilliant innovation. This notion depicts a common believe of many immigrants who were buoyed by idea of being in the land of opportunities. Jurgis can not understand the negative altitude of his fellow workers in the slaughter house. But slowly he encounters episodes in his work place and outside which makes him realize all is not well. He realizes pregnant cows are slaughtered for meat against the law and Antana’s dubious job offer. Perhaps the single event that eventually leads to the break up of Jurgis’ family is the attempt to purchase a house. Apart from the difficulties in raising the required amount they discover the contract is fraudulent. The house is worth much less than indicated and there are hidden interest charges. The subsequent financial burden ignites a series of events that eventually shatters the family’s American dream that lured them into America in the first place. All members of the family including children are sent to work in order to keep the family financially afloat. Considering the financial burden the family is facing Ona is silent of her rape ordeal by her boss. Once Jurgis learns of the ordeal he fights Ona’s boss and he is subsequently jailed for thirty days. With the exit of Jurgis the main contributor to their house project, they are evicted. The family suffers anguish and frustration which results to the death of several of the family members. Dejected, Jurgis bec omes a drifter hopping from place to place is search of solace and work. Eventually he returns back to Chicago and embarks on criminal activities. The changed Jurgis intends to hit back to the society against which he is aggrieved. He engages in activities ranging from mugging to rigging of the election. However he fails to improve his fortune through this path until he accidentally stumbles upon a Socialist Party

Politics Through Chinese History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Politics Through Chinese History - Essay Example The basis of Chinese society was the family. A Chinese family consisted of grandparents, parents, children, grandchildren, daughters-in-law, and servants. Family ties were very close. Every member of the family was duty-bound to safeguard the family honor and prestige. If a son did something wrong, he and the family will lose face, that is, disgraced. The parents were the absolute masters in the family. They arranged the marriage of the children and decided what professions they would take. Disobedience to parents was regarded as a serious sin. If the father died, the oldest son took his place. A family with many children was believed to be blessed by the gods. Women had few rights. Their place was at home. Their duties were to serve the men, to take care of the children and to attend to household work. They also worked in the fields like male laborers. The economic life in Old China centered on agriculture. About 80% of the Chinese people were peasants who lived in villages and toiled daily in their small farms. Those without farms were engaged in various industries such as bakery, carpentry, brickmaking, weaving, and retail merchandising. (Grousset, p. 99) Guilds existed in China long before they were established in Medieval Europe. A guild was an association of men engaged in an occupation. Hence, there were merchant’s guilds, baker’s guilds, musicians’ guilds, and carpenters’ guilds. The guilds fixed the prices of goods, determined wages, and working conditions, and looked after the welfare of the members. In matters of religion, the Chinese were very practical. They were deeply concerned about the gods, religious dogmas, and the future life. Heaven to them was abstract thing. They simply worshipped their ancestors and gods and paid homage to heaven and earth, mountains in other objects of nature. They were free from religious bigotry. They were free from being Confucians, Taoists and Buddhists at the same time. (Labourette, p. 56) Political life in Old China was regulated by Confucian precepts. At the head of the empire was the Emperor, who was regarded as the "Son of the Heaven." He ruled by the "mandate of heaven", that is, by permission of the gods. If he became corrupt, he immediately lost the mandate of heaven, and the people can overthrow him by revolution and place another ruler on the throne. (Labourette, p. 54) Below the emperor was a bureaucracy consisting of ministers, viceroys and governor

Uk housing market

Uk housing market 1.INTRODUCTION 1.1Introduction 1.2A brief history of the UK housing market 1.3Aims The aim of this research project is to compare and evaluate the variables that affected the FTBs accessibility to the housing market over the last 40 years. 1.4Objectives The first objective is to establish the factors that have affected the rise in house prices other the last 40 years. The second objective is to review and evaluate how the property market has changed over the last 40 years with respect to affordable housing, and what impact this has had on FTB statistics. The third objective is to review and analyse the change in Private Lender schemes over the last 40 years, and the affect this has had on FTB statistics. The fourth objective is to review the relationship between variables such as life expectancy, retirement age, size of families, wages etc and their overall effect on FTBs accessibility to the housing market. The fifth objective is to conduct questionnaire surveys using a sample of FTBs to establish the publics perspective on affordable housing. The sixth objective is to conduct questionnaire surveys using a sample of FTBs to establish the most common method used. 1.5Definitions 1.6 First time buyer: Is a phrase commonly used to identify someone who would be buying a house for the first time. Average house price: The average price that a house would sell if placed on the market, this price would fall between the bottom 50per cent of house prices and the top 50per cent. Average household income: The combined average gross household income, from sources such as wages, salaries and various sources of investments. Key worker: A public sector worker, linked to professions such as, NHS staff, police officers, teachers, social workers, fire fighters, local authority planners and prison officers. House Price to income ratio: The ratio of median house prices to median incomes. 1.5 Abbreviations FTB: First time buyer HPIR: House price to income ratio CIS: Cash Incentive Scheme RTA: Right to Acquire RTB: Right to Buy 2.LITERATURE REVIEW In order to compare and evaluate the variables that affected the FTBs accessibility to the housing market over the last 40 years, it is necessary to review existing published work. Due to a lot of the published works, which were gained from the library not being up to date, the literature review is mainly based on reports and articles which were gained from online sources. In order for the information that is gathered to be analysed in the most effective manner it will be divided into the various sections: Factors that have affected the rise in house prices other the last 40 years. Changes in the property market over the last 40 years with respect to affordable housing. Changes in the private lender schemes over the last 40 years. Variables affecting FTBs accessibility to the housing market. In the late 1980s and early 1990s the British housing market experienced unprecedented changes and raised heightened concerns over the affordability of many to gain access to the property market, due largely to rising house price to income ratios, which has been labelled as a ‘crisis of affordability in housing provision (Maclennan, Williams, 1990, p. 8). It is only rather recently that ‘affordability has become a common term in housing policy in Britain (Whitehead, 1991),and for this reason the meaning of ‘affordability has caused much confusion, and since the Government has given no specific definition for the term, the following definition has been sourced ‘Affordability is concerned with securing some given standard of housing (or different standards) at a price or rent which does not impose, in the eyes of some third party (usually government) an unreasonable burden on household incomes. (Maclennan, Williams, 1990, p. 9) 2.1 Factors that have affected the rise in house prices other the last 40 years. It has become apparent in recent years that the rise in house prices has become a major issue within the UK, which has resulted in First Time Buyers (FTB) finding it difficult to gain access to the property ladder. The problem faced by rising house prices has been imminent for a long time, but up until the last decade this problem was mainly confined to London, the South East and a few regional hot spots (Department for Communities and Local Government [DCLG], 2006, page 6). But by looking at more recent figures it has become apparent that high house prices have become a more wide spread problem, with particular emphasis on rural districts, and smaller settlements (DCLG, 2006, page 6). Though there has already been a vast amount of research and study on the subject of affordable housing within the UK, namely the Barker review (2003), whose principal reasoning behind the problem was largely focused on a poor planning system and constraints on housing supply. Little information was sourced on the drivers and factors which play a major role in determining UK house prices, which will be the principle aim of this section of the literature review. By analysing literature and data collected from published works this section of the literature review will examine the various factors that have played a contributing role in the rise in house prices within the UK. These include: Interest rates Supply and demand Rise in population and increasing number of households Income Buy to let market Unemployment Confidence 2.1.1 Interest Rates Many scholars believe that there is a direct link between house prices and interest rates; however the focus of this report aims to suggest, that in fact it is the affordability of housing and public confidence which is instead affected by alterations in interest rates, which in turn leads to changes in house prices. For example, a rise in interest rates would lead to increased monthly repayments on mortgages, as mortgage repayments rise, the prospects of buying a house becomes less attractive, thus leading to a decline in demand for houses and fall in house prices. On the other hand when interest rates are lowered, this would lead to a fall in mortgage repayments, public confidence and demand is likely to rise at this point leading to a rise in house prices. If interest rates were to continue fall in this manner so would house prices, until the housing market reaches a state of oversupply. McQuinn and ORiley (2006) suggest that lower interest rates mean that mortgage repayments are lower and hence the house purchaser can potentially borrow more. This would also lead to an outward shift in the demand curve with prices increasing. ‘The fall in UK interest rates (and unemployment) over time has had two linked effects. It has brought the cost of borrowing down sharply, leaving lenders (and borrowers in terms of pressuring for) with the dilemma as to whether to increase the multipliers applied (i.e. up from three times loan to income ratio- LTI) which in turn has increased demand and through that house prices (Forest, Lee, 2007, p. 168). 2.1.2 Supply and demand Supply and demand is defined as, ‘the quantity of goods available for sale at a given price, and the level of consumer need for those goods. The balance of supply and demand fluctuates as external economic factors (such as the cost of materials and the level of competition in the marketplace) influence the level of demand from consumers and the desire and ability of producers to supply the goods (BNET, 2010) Kate Barker, a member of the Bank of England monetary policy committee, was commissioned by the Treasury to examine housing supply (Guardian, 2008) and establish why house prices in the UK are rising so fast. Within the report she established that the main reason was due to the supply of housing not keeping up with demand, which she put down to the increased growth in population (Barker, 2004). In an article for the Mirror Martin Ellis, housing economist at Halifax puts it best by saying â€Å"unless we can get the supply and demand in balance then that is going to lead to more upwards pressure on that ratio of prices to earnings.† (House prices ‘have quadrupled, 2010) Data collected from the ODPM revealed that housing supply in the UK is currently growing at 150,000 new homes each year, in comparison to the 190,000 new households each year. This shortfall of 40,000 new homes which would be needed, in order for supply to meet demand, could be a significant factor in the currently rising house prices (Office of National Statistics, 2008). In speaking to the Estates Gazette (EG) Yvette Cooper, the former housing and planning minister, revealed that in order to keep up with demand 200,000 new homes would need to be built each year (EGI, 2005), with 3 million new homes built by 2020. However with the credit crunch having just hit and the uncertain state the economy is in, it is looking less and less likely that the Government will be able to meet these targets. 2.1.3.Rise in population and increasing number of households As previously mentioned supply and demand of houses has a direct effect on house prices; the aim of this section of the report is to establish how changes in the population can in turn have an effect on supply and demand of houses. It is a well known fact the UKs population is gradually growing; there have been various contributing factors to this, but the main reason is longer life expectancy. The average life expectancy of a male in the UK has risen from 67.1 in 1970 to 77.53 in 2008, and females life expectancy has risen from 74.7 in 1970 to 81.74 in 2008 (Office of National Statistics, 2008). The rise in household numbers isnt solely the result of the rise in life expectancy, theres also a variety of different demographic factors which have contributed. These include: 2.1.3.1. Divorce rates. According to the Office for National Statistics, in 2008, the divorce rate in the UK stood at 11.2 divorcing people per 1000 married; this is in comparison to 6.1 in 1971, which is a 46 per cent increase. With the amount of couples getting divorced increasing, so too will the number of households, pushing demand up (Office of National statistics, 2008). 2.1.3.2. Decline in number of marriages. The increase in the number of households in the UK can also be largely explained by an increase in the mean age that couples are getting married. According to the Office for National Statistics the mean marriage age in the UK has increased from 27.1 in 1970 to 35.6 in 2003 (Office of National Statistics, 2006). With the general public opting to marry at a later stage in their life the number of households is likely to increase; as explained before an increase in the number of households is likely to lead to increase in demand for houses, which will in turn lead to a rise in house prices. 2.1.3.3. Major influx of immigrants. Migration is an important factor in the changes in the UKs population over the last 40 years, when inward migration is greater than outward migration; the population would rise at a higher rate. According to the Office of National Statistics 518,000 people immigrated to the UK in 2009, whereas 370,000 emigrated, giving a net migration figure of 148,000 (Office of National Statistics, 2009). 2.1.4 Income According to McQuinn and OReilly (2006), rising income will mean that borrowers can borrow more on the basis of higher income and hence bid a higher price for a property, thus the demand curve for housing will shift outwards with prices increasing. It is also suggested that higher household incomes will result in households having more disposable income, which in turn will lead to increase in normal and luxury goods, since it is assumed that housing is a normal/luxury good, it can also be assumed that demand for housing will increase, and so too will house prices. Keynes best describes this theory as â€Å"The fundamental psychological law, upon which we are entitled to depend with great confidence both a priori and from our knowledge of human nature and from the detailed facts of experience, is that men are disposed, as a rule and on the average, to increase their consumption, as their income increases, but not by as much as the increases in their income (The General Theory, 1936, p.96) In their book ‘Booms and Busts in the UK Housing Market Muellbauer and Murphy suggest that income growth alongside predicted income growth can lead to an increase in public confidence to spend disposable income; this increase in public confidence, respectively lead to a rise in house prices, through demand rising. There has been a marked increase in the number of women in paid employment in the past 60 years (Hogarth et al., 2001) there are a variety of different reasons for this, but one of the most significant would be the introduction of the Equal pay Act 1970. With many households now having two incomes they can arrange for a joint mortgage, which in effect means they can bid up house prices. 2.1.5.Buy to let market Buy-to-let (BTL) mortgages are where an investor purchases a property for purpose of renting it out; the investor rents the property out to tenants with the intention of using the money from the rent to pay off his mortgage, with a possible excess which would be kept by the landlord. The landlord would also be looking to make a capital gain on the property over its life time making it a very good investment. Since July 1996 when the Association of Residential Letting Agents (ARLA) launched BTL loans, there has been an explosion of investors entering the market hoping to get both income and capital gains from their investment. According to Paragon Mortgages, BTL now accounts for around 14% of the mortgage market (Stepek, 2007, para. 4) According to the Council of Mortgage Lenders (CML) buy-to-let mortgages outstanding continue to rise, in 2008 there were 1,103,000 BTL mortgages in the UK worth  £132.5 billion, which is a rise of 19% by volume and 25% by value from a year ago previous (CML, 2008). This surge in investors entering the BTL market has been in part due to the soaring house prices of the late 90s, but also largely due to relaxation in the lending criteria , the CML have revealed that in 2008 on average, lenders would offer a maximum loan of 83% on the value of the property (CML, 2008). However with more and more investors looking to make an easy buck, upward pressure is being put on demand, resulting in house prices to rise. To add to this, investors have predominantly been buying up smaller homes, consequently making it harder for FTBs to even get small premises. 2.1.6 Unemployment With unemployment at its lowest since the 1970s (http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page15026), there is more people with the potential to gain a mortgage and enter the housing market, this upward pressure on demand is turn going push house prices up. Armstrong and Taylor suggest that, low unemployment leads to higher wages, which in turn lead to an increase in demand for housing and hence higher house prices (Armstrong, Taylor, 2000, p. 208) 2.1.7 Confidence ‘In analysing the ingredients that have contributed towards the recent strong growth in house prices analysts have consistently made reference to the strength of consumer confidence. The implication is that consumer confidence positively impacts upon house price growth. (Report on confidence) Garratt goes on to say ‘While consumer confidence is not a significant factor in driving household consumption, it does have a role to play in influencing the willingness of households to undertake secured borrowing. (report on confidence, look in my docs for file) ‘Speculative demand for housing draws new buyers into the housing market on the expectation of future price increases and associated capital gains. The extra level of demand funded mainly through mortgage finance adds to the existing level of mortgage debt but the speculative demand creates a ratchet effect whereby expectations of higher prices leads to an increase in demand which sends actual house price higher ‘ (Riley, 2005, p. 73) Due to the extreme rise in house prices of the mid 90s, public confidence in the housing market grew (further explained in chapter?), which led to a rush in people purchasing property with the expectation of trying to get a piece of the action, which has caused greater demand for houses, pushing prices up. 2.2 Changes in the property market over the last 40 years with respect to affordable housing. In order to establish how the changes in the property market over the last 40 years, with respect to affordable housing has affected FTB statistics, it is first important to discuss the development of affordable housing within the UK. This will enable FTB statistics to be compared to a time-line of these developments, giving an impression of their effectiveness. 2.2.1 Right to Buy In past history a lot homes in the UK would have been council owned, but since the 1980s the proportion of council owned homes has diminished instead favouring towards providing support to various other forms of social housing. In 1980, under power of Margaret Thatcher the 1980 Housing Act introduced the Right to Buy scheme (RTB), which offered council tenants (of three years tenancy) the right to buy their council house, with discounts up to 50per cent, which in 1986 went up to 70per cent for flats (Power, 1993, p. 217). The RTB scheme has faced lots of criticism since its introduction, said to favour the more affluent home owners rather than the poorer more in need (King, 2006, p. 68). However if we were to look at the policy and whether it met its initial aims, the RTB could be viewed as having been very successful; over the past 25 years the RTB scheme has helped broaden owner occupation, particular to the working-class and helped break up municipal housing (King, 2006, p. 68). However it has also been argued that the RTB scheme has lead to a shortage of social housing available, largely due to Government edicts which have prevented councils from spending the proceeds of sales of social housing on new housing (Hallett, 1993, p.230). Accompanied by an increase in demand for affordable housing, this could be a major contributing factor in rise of house prices. 2.2.2 HomeBuy Schemes 2.3 Changes in the private lender schemes over the last 40 years. This section of the literature review aims to look at how, changes in credit available to consumers in the UK has played a role in the increase in house prices over the last 40 years. Aoki, Proudman and Vlieghe (2002, p.10) suggest that credit frictions may be important in understanding the relationship between interest rates, house prices, housing investment and consumption and found that significant effects of households access to credit on consumption and on housing investment in UK aggregate and regional data. Over the last 40 years credit constraint has seen some significant changes, with access to credit more easily available to consumers. This can be largely explained by the removal of exchange controls in 1979 and bank lending in 1980, it can be further explained by the Building Societies Act 1986, which lifted the restrictions on how building societies operate, which gave them the same status as banks (Aoki, Proudman and Vlieghe, 2002, p. 14). Other significant changes in the last 40 years include the inclusion of non-bank entrants such as department stores, retailers and insurance companies in offering credit through services such as credit cards, unsecu red loans and mortgage products. Furthermore an increase in internet banking in the 1990s and better credit scoring methods also contributed to better credit conditions (Muelbauer, 2005, p.5). In the 1970s and early 1980s building societies collectively agreed the mortgage and deposit rates they offered (Aoki, Proudman and Vlieghe, 2002, p.14), but due to relaxation in lending criteria and increase in competition between the lenders, the setting of interest rates have been a far more competitive, which has led to lower interest rates for consumers. Interest rates can have a direct effect on the supply of mortgage loans, which in turn will affect house prices. According to the financial money group moneyfacts.co.uk, there are currently 2,003 different mortgages available on the market (Burridge, 2010, p.1), the result of this increase in competition, is the reduction of the cost of borrowing , which in turn will encourage more people to take out a mortgage. This increase in demand, as explained before will have an adverse effect on house prices. 2.4 Variables affecting FTBs accessibility to the housing market. This section of the literature review aims to establish the various variables that have affected FTBs accessibility to the housing market; this will be done through the analysis of various scholars opinions on the subject matter. It has become apparent in recent years that the rise in house prices in comparison to incomes has become a major issue within the UK, which has resulted in FTBs finding it difficult to gain access to the property ladder. As a result of incomes not rising at the same rapidity as house price inflation, the principle problem for FTBs is affordability; in the last 20 years the average price a FTB is expected to pay has increased by 294 per cent, â€Å"with the average UK property now costing five times the average earnings of a full-time male employee† (Chesworth, 2004, p. 2). To help emphasis the problem that FTBs face this dissertation will examine the rise in house prices in comparison to income since 1970; in a study by Alliance Trust Research Centre they compared the problem facing FTBs with that of their parents when they tried to buy their first property (Alliance Trust, 2006). According to the study house prices have risen from 2.5 times the average income in 1970 to 3.9 times the average income in 2005, equating to a 60 per cent increase in house price to income ratio (Alliance Trust, 2006). The average household income is  £38,302, and the house price index report shows that the average house price in the UK is  £197,000, meaning the house price to income ratio is about 5.1. These historically high figures mean that young FTBs are finding it increasingly difficult to gain access into the property market and can often lead to FTBs having to take on risky mortgages, for example interest only schemes. This can result in high household debt, which currently stands at 150 per cent of household income (Ratio of House Prices to Income, 2008). Though more recent data collected in November 2008, from the price index published by Nationwide Building Society has revealed that house prices are currently on a downward descent, FTBs are still finding it difficult to purchase their first home (CML, 2008). Though FTBs ‘loan-to-value ratios have been going down, with the average FTB taking a loan out on 84per cent of the value of the property in comparison to 90per cent in 2007 (CML, 2008). This is merely the result of lenders lowering the amount that they will lend; in previous housing climates borrowers were able to take out 100per cent mortgages, but with the downturn in the market, lenders are requiring a substantially larger deposit. This subsequently has meant that FTBs are now faced with the prospect of having to find a larger deposit; the research revealed that the average FTB deposit rose from  £15,000 in 2007 to  £19,000 in 2008 (CML, 2008). Talk about a lot of FTBs in the past would have got the money for the first house from inheritance, from parents and grand parentsbut due to longer life expectancy this isnt always available. As discussed in chapter? Late marriage can not only have an effect on housing demand, but can also play a part in FTBs accessibility to the housing market. With a lot of people opting to buy their first house once they are married With the mean average age that people are getting married in the UK rising from 27.1 in 1970 to 35.6 in 2003, As already discussed in chapter? The buy to let market has led to a massive in surge of investors buying up houses, it is typical that these investors will be buying up smaller typical FTB houses, with demand for these houses going up so will price, making it harder for FTBs to gain access to the market. More luxury goods available people spending their money on other things Sudden drop in house prices has led to parents being less likely or able to assist their kids in purchasing their first property due to their investments (house) taking a massive drop. Jobs less stable in the past people had jobs for life Contract employment; less people on full time 3.METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Strategy The aim of this research project is to compare and evaluate the variables that have affected the FTBs accessibility to the housing market over the last 40 years. In order to come to the best conclusion to this, it is essential to gather data. This chapter aims to provide a description of how this data will be gathered, and the particular research methods that will be implemented. The data collected can be split into Primary and Secondary data. ‘Secondary data consists of information that already exists somewhere, having been collected for another purpose. Primary data consist of information collected for the specific purpose at hand. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6T2R0_ESU5ACpg=PA335dq=what+is+primary+datalr=cd=1#v=onepageq=what%20is%20primary%20dataf=false 3.1.1 Secondary Data Since the basis of this investigation, is to analyse house prices over the last 40 years and the effect this has had on FTBs accessibility to the housing market, secondary research will be very useful, mainly due to the extensive amount of information and data already available. The bulk of the secondary data collected has been sourced from journals, reports and websites of professional bodies. However, due to the fact that a lot of the information gathered has the potential to be bias, a variety of different sources will be used and then compared. The majority of the information gathered will be statistical data, which will include economical statistics, demographical statistics and housing market statistics; this will enable an analysis of the factors and variables that affect house prices and to spot any trends. Though a lot of these statistics were included in the literature review, the aim of the next chapter is to give a more specific investigation and data analysis. Secondary data includes: Academic Journals Internet Sites and Web pages Textbooks Newspaper Articles Other Academic Studies 3.1.2 Primary Data In order to gain the views and opinions of the housing market, questionnaires will be conducted using a sample group of home owners and non home owners. These questionnaires will be conducted using social networking sites, the advantages of using this method is, low cost of data collection and processing, ability to get a wider return rate from all over the country and the disadvantages to using this method is that it allows for errors to be made due to misunderstandings of the questions or lack of knowledge on the subject. So for this reason the questionnaires have been designed in the simplest manner. Another drawback to using questionnaires is that they may not provide an accurate view of the housing market, since only a relatively small sample group was used, it is possible that the information that is gathered may give a distorted view and conflict with the secondary data. Had there been more time it would have been beneficial to the investigation to carry out a questionnaire using a much larger sample group, giving a more accurate representation. To further the research even more it could have been very advantageous to have set up interviews with the governing bodies responsible for setting Government policy on housing and interest rates. Implementing these two methods along with the research already carried out would have allowed for opinions from both sides. 3.2 Literature Review With the aim of keeping the literature review as orderly and concise as possible, it was divided into four distinct sections, these sections are listed below. Factors that have affected the rise in house prices other the last 40 years. Changes in the property market over the last 40 years with respect to affordable housing. Changes in the private lender schemes over the last 40 years. Variables affecting FTBs accessibility to the housing market. The literature review provided an overview of the factors that have affected house prices over the last 40 years and variables affecting FTBs accessibility to the housing market. Though this research gave a good outline of the broader issues at hand, the literature review alone is insufficient in meeting the aims of the study, so for this reason it is paramount that further investigation is undertaken. 3.3 Timeline Carrying out the literature review bought forward the possibility of creating a timeline of changes in the housing market over the last 40 years. The basis of the timeline will be creation Government policy related to housing, as well as any significant changes in private lender schemes over the last 40 years. By analysing this timeline alongside statistics and data gathered from the secondary research, along with the responses from both questionnaires, direct correlations can be examined. 3.4 Questionnaire As already stated questionnaires will be sent out to two different sample groups, home owners who bought their first house over the last 40 years and non home owners. This will give a reflection on the UK publics perspective of the housing market. The structure of both questionnaires is shown below: 3.4.1 Questionnaire: Property owners Q1. GENDER Male: Female: Q2. MARITAL STATUS AT THE TIME OF BUYING YOUR FIRST PROPERTY Single: Married: Other Q3. AGE 18-30: 31-40: 41-50: 51-60: 60 and above: Q4. WHICH AREA OF THE COUNTRY DID YOU PURCHASE YOUR FIRST PROPERTY? North: North West: North East: